https://jurbangeo.ut.ac.ir/ Geographical Urban Planning Research (GUPR) en daily 1 Thu, 23 Jul 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Thu, 23 Jul 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://jurbangeo.ut.ac.ir/article_108088.html ABSTRACTSocial hysteria, acting as an affective force, drives collective behaviors through the ‘consumption of joy’ manifested in flamboyant and ostentatious rituals. The media-driven commodification of happiness, by decoupling itself from authentic cultural foundations, has precipitated a shift toward performative joy, conspicuous consumption, and the competitive representation of well-being. Adopting a descriptive-analytical approach, this study investigates the nexus between social hysteria and joy consumption. The research employed a sequential mixed-methods design: the qualitative phase involved semi-structured interviews with twenty experts selected via snowball sampling, while the quantitative phase surveyed 384 female shoppers on the Madani 20-Meter Street in the Islamabad neighborhood of Zanjan during the pre-Norouz period, using the Cochran formula for sample determination. Data analysis was conducted using Grounded Theory via MAXQDA for qualitative synthesis, and Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) via SmartPLS for quantitative validation. The findings reveal that indices such as conspicuous consumption, micro-social competition, consumerism, social pressure, competitive celebrations and travel, collective behavioral pressure, and symbolic joy significantly influence urban action patterns. According to the structural model, the most significant impacts were observed in the constructs of ‘consumerism and social pressure’ (t=3.246) and ‘collective behavioral pressure’ (t=3.795). Furthermore, the constructs of ‘beliefs and emotions’ (t=3.850) and ‘social susceptibility’ (t=3.845) exhibited the strongest influence in reinforcing collective behaviors. The null hypothesis is rejected given the statistical significance (p<0.001). To mitigate social hysteria, a multi-dimensional approach—encompassing cultural policy, education, economic support, and media representation—is essential to prevent the systemic reproduction of social inequality.Extended AbstractIntroductionPublic celebrations and traditional festivals, particularly the ancient Persian festival of Nowruz, have historically served as vital conduits for social cohesion, collective renewal, and the preservation of national and cultural identity. As a liminal period marking the transition from winter to spring, Nowruz has traditionally functioned as a temporal mechanism for social recalibration, providing a shared space for communal solidarity and the reaffirmation of ancestral values. However, in the contemporary urban landscape, these authentic expressions of joy are increasingly subjected to the corrosive influences of hyper-consumerism and the rapid, often uneven, processes of globalization. The traditional ritualistic dimensions of Norouz are being progressively replaced by a commodified spectacle, where the essence of the celebration is no longer rooted in communal belonging but in the acquisition and display of material goods. This research investigates the emerging ‘paradox of joy,’ a socio-spatial phenomenon where the pursuit of authentic communal happiness is superseded by performative, status-driven consumption patterns. This transition signifies a fundamental shift from joy as a shared cultural experience to joy as a manufactured commodity. In this context, the urban environment becomes a stage for what can be termed ‘social hysteria’—a state of heightened, volatile, and emotionally contagious behavior driven by the perceived necessity of performing socio-economic status through ritualistic consumption. This hysteria is not merely a psychological aberration but a structural byproduct of urban environments that prioritize commercial exchange over social interaction.Focusing specifically on the Madani Street axis in Zanjan, this study explores how this phenomenon manifests within a specific, high-density commercial corridor. Madani Street, acting as a primary socio-economic artery for the city, serves as a critical site for observing the tensions between tradition and modernity. It is hypothesized that the Madani Street axis serves not merely as a commercial transit point, but as a ‘symbolic theater’ where socio-economic anxieties, class tensions, and identity crises are masked by the competitive consumption of joy. The central question driving this research is: How does the intersection of social hysteria and the commodification of celebration along the Madani Street axis facilitate the deepening gap between surface-level festive performances and the structural, underlying crises of identity and socio-economic stability in the urban context? By interrogating this axis, the study seeks to uncover how the spatial organization of urban commerce can either foster authentic sociality or accelerate the fragmentation of the urban social fabric through the mechanisms of consumerist hysteria. MethodologyTo capture the multifaceted nature of the socio-spatial phenomenon under investigation, this study adopted a rigorous sequential mixed-methods research design. This methodological choice was driven by the need to bridge the gap among the subjective, lived experiences of urban actors and the objective, structural patterns of behavior. By integrating qualitative depth with quantitative precision, the research facilitates a dialectical dialogue between exploratory induction and confirmatory deduction, ensuring that the resulting model is both theoretically grounded and statistically robust. The research was executed in two distinct but interconnected phases. The initial qualitative phase was designed to explore the latent, non-linear dimensions of ‘social hysteria’ that traditional quantitative metrics often fail to capture. Grounded Theory (GT) was employed as the primary inductive framework to allow concepts to emerge directly from the urban context. To achieve this, a purposive snowball sampling technique was utilized to recruit twenty key informants—experts in urban sociology, cultural studies, and urban planning—whose specialized insights provided the necessary depth to understand the underlying drivers of festive behavior. The data, gathered through semi-structured in-depth interviews, underwent a systematic process of inductive abstraction using MAXQDA software. This involved a rigorous three-stage coding procedure: open coding to fragment the data into discrete concepts; axial coding to identify relationships among these concepts; and selective coding to integrate them into a coherent theoretical narrative. This intensive process yielded 482 initial codes, which were subsequently synthesized into a robust conceptual framework consisting of five core dimensions: (1) luxury-driven micro-social competition, (2) the escalation of consumerism and social pressure, (3) the phenomenon of competitive celebrations, (4) collective behavioral pressure, and (5) the prevalence of ‘symbolic joy.’The subsequent quantitative phase was initiated to operationalize these qualitative constructs and test their structural validity within the Madani Street axis. The findings from the Grounded Theory phase served as the foundation for the development of a structured survey instrument, which was administered to a sample of 384 participants, determined via the Cochran formula to ensure statistical representativeness. To analyze the complex causal relationships among the identified constructs, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was implemented using SmartPLS 3. These partial least squares approach was selected for its superior ability to handle complex models with multi-dimensional constructs. The integrity of the structural model was rigorously validated through a multi-step statistical process. First, measurement model validity was established via Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), yielding a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) coefficient of 0.8650.8650.865 and a significant Bartlett’s test (p<0.001p < 0.001p<0.001), confirming the suitability of the data for factor analysis. Second, internal consistency and convergent validity were confirmed through high Composite Reliability (CR > 0.7) and Average Variance Extracted (AVE > 0.5). Finally, the structural model’s predictive power was evaluated through a bootstrapping procedure, where the significance of causal linkages was determined by T-statistics. All hypothesized path coefficients achieved a TTT-value exceeding the critical threshold of 1.961.961.96, thereby providing robust statistical evidence for the proposed structural relationships. Results and DiscussionThe empirical investigation of the Madani Street axis reveals that social hysteria is far from a transient psychological aberration or a mere seasonal mood swing; instead, it emerges as a profound, systemic determinant that reconfigures festive behavior within the contemporary urban fabric. By synthesizing qualitative thematic insights with quantitative structural validation, this study demonstrates that the traditional Nowruz celebrations have undergone a fundamental metamorphosis—transitioning from a communal ritual of solidarity to a competitive, performative spectacle of socio-economic status.Central to this transformation is the phenomenon of ‘performative belonging,’ a concept identified through Grounded Theory and subsequently validated by structural modeling. The qualitative data suggest that the high-density retail environment and intense visual stimulation of Madani Street act as socio-spatial accelerants, triggering a state of symbolic joy that serves as a psychological facade. This is quantitatively confirmed by the dominant influence of ‘Collective Behavioral Pressure’ (β=3.795\beta = 3.795β=3.795) and ‘Consumerism and Social Pressure’ (β=3.246\beta = 3.246β=3.246). These variables function as the primary engines of a ‘perpetual loop of performative celebration,’ where the fear of social exclusion and the perceived necessity of conspicuous consumption outweigh the actual cultural or spiritual values of the Nowruz holiday. Consequently, the street is transformed from a site of organic social encounter into a high-stakes theater of social competition, where individuals feel compelled to mirror the perceived success of others to avoid the stigma of economic inadequacy. This cycle of hysteria is not uniformly experienced but is deeply embedded in gendered socio-cultural structures. The analysis reveals that the management of this performative joy is divided along clear gender lines, driven by the decisive factors of ‘Beliefs and Emotions’ (β=3.850\beta = 3.850β=3.850) and ‘Socio-Cultural Susceptibility’ (β=3.845\beta = 3.845β=3.845). The findings indicate that women bear the disproportionate responsibility for the aesthetic and performative administration of Nowruz rituals, acting as the primary managers of the visual display of household and social prosperity. Conversely, men are tasked with navigating the intense economic pressures and the labor-intensive demands required to sustain this public facade of wealth. This gendered division of labor reinforces the cycle of hysteria, as the aesthetic demands of women and the economic burdens of men become inextricably linked to the maintenance of social status. Ultimately, the integrated findings suggest that the celebratory patterns observed along the Madani Street axis are not authentic expressions of cultural vitality. Instead, they function as sophisticated, defensive psychological mechanisms designed to camouflage deep-seated structural anxieties, including economic instability and identity crises. Through this process, the ‘consumption of joy’ has been effectively commodified, evolving from a communal ritual into a potent instrument of social stratification. This commodification does not merely change how people celebrate; it actively reshapes the social-spatial dynamics of the city, driving a wedge between surface-level festive performances and the underlying crises of urban stability and social cohesion. ConclusionThe findings suggest that the Madani Street axis has undergone a profound socio-spatial metamorphosis, transitioning from a traditional site of communal solidarity into a hyper-commodified arena for the performative ‘consumption of joy.’ This transformation is not merely a localized phenomenon but a microcosmic reflection of a broader societal crisis. The identified ‘social hysteria’ acts as a diagnostic symptom of a landscape where urban spaces no longer facilitate organic social encounters, but instead reinforce existing socio-economic inequalities by compelling residents—particularly those from precarious middle and lower-class backgrounds—to participate in unsustainable, competitive modes of celebration to maintain social standing. Theoretically, the observed patterns in Zanjan align closely with Guy Debord's notion of the Society of the Spectacle, wherein genuine social existence is supplanted by its mediated representation. In the context of Madani Street, the ‘spectacle’ of Nowruz is no longer an expression of cultural continuity, but a visual performance of economic survival. This creates what can be termed a ‘spatiality of anxiety,’ where the urban environment triggers psychological distress through the constant juxtaposition of festive imagery and the reality of economic precarity. Furthermore, through the lens of Henri Lefebvre’s Right to the City, the findings indicate that the ‘use-value’ of public space - as a place for communal ritual and social cohesion - has been systematically eroded by its ‘exchange-value’ - as a theater for commercial display and status competition. This erosion deprives citizens of their right to inhabit the city in a way that is meaningful, non-commercial, and culturally authentic.A paradigm shift in urban governance is imperative to mitigate these negative externalities and prevent the further fragmentation of the urban social fabric. We argue that the current top-down, market-driven approach to urban festivities should be replaced by a bottom-up, citizen-centric framework. Specifically, policy-makers and urban planners should prioritize three strategic interventions. First, there should be a deliberate ‘decoupling’ of social identity from ritualistic consumption. This can be achieved by fostering inclusive, low-cost, and community-based cultural programs that emphasize the non-material essence of Nowruz, thereby reducing the pressure of conspicuous consumption. Second, municipal frameworks should become gender-responsive, recognizing and alleviating the disproportionate psychological and economic burden placed on women in the aesthetic management of these socio-cultural rituals. Third, the spatial programming of the Madani Street axis should be re-engineered to prioritize ‘slow urbanism’—creating pockets of non-commercial, organic social interaction that allow for genuine human connection away from the pressures of the retail spectacle. In conclusion, restoring the authentic essence of Nowruz in the urban landscape of Zanjan requires more than superficial policy adjustments; it demands a fundamental pivot toward restoring social solidarity. Without systemic interventions to de-commodify the festive experience, the Madani Street axis will remain trapped in a self-perpetuating cycle of socio-spatial anxiety. The ultimate challenge for contemporary urban governance lies in navigating the transition from a paradigm of symbolic, performative joy to one of sustainable, grounded, and inclusive communal renewal. FundingThis research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Authors’ ContributionMohammad-Taghi Heidari: Methodology, initial concept, and drafting of the theoretical framework; Majid Hazrati: Statistical analysis, editing, and interpretation. Conflict of InterestThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. AcknowledgmentThe authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the local business owners along Madani Street in Islamabad, whose cooperation and assistance during the interview process were invaluable to this study. We would also like to extend our thanks to the anonymous reviewers and experts for their constructive critiques and insightful comments, which significantly contributed to enhancing the quality of this manuscript. https://jurbangeo.ut.ac.ir/article_108089.html ABSTRACT As urban transportation systems become more complex, relying solely on engineering indicators to promote active travel is insufficient, and travel satisfaction has come to be recognized as a determining psychological factor. While the majority of Iranian research studies have concentrated on the objective dimensions of the built environment, this study, by developing and testing a comprehensive conceptual model, simultaneously analyzes the role of the objective and perceived environment, attitude, mode choice, and travel satisfaction in Urmia City. The methodological innovation of this research lies in the employment of a two-step PLS-SEM approach to evaluate the feedback pathway from satisfaction to attitudes, thereby making it possible to test the causal mechanism of the effect of experience on attitudes within a feedback loop framework using cross-sectional data. The findings indicate that the built environment indirectly influences mode choice through the perception of the environment and attitudes. Furthermore, the direct effect of mode choice on satisfaction is substantially reduced when controlling for socio-economic status, suggesting that the reported satisfaction with certain modes stems less from the nature of the mode itself than from structural constraints and unequal travel opportunities. In contrast, a strong satisfaction–attitude feedback pathway was obtained, indicating that satisfying travel experiences reinforce positive attitudes and create a cycle among experience, attitude, and behavior. The findings indicate that the transition to sustainable transportation in the urban context of Iran requires simultaneous attention to the perceived quality of the environment, the actual travel experience, and the amendment of structural constraints. Physical interventions will be effective only if they are accompanied by enhancements in the travel experience and improvements in users' perceptions. Extended Abstract Introduction Rapid urbanization has intensified urban challenges such as air pollution, traffic congestion, and declining physical activity. Consequently, policymakers have increasingly promoted sustainable mobility solutions, among which active travel—walking and cycling—has gained particular attention due to its environmental, health, and social benefits. Concepts such as pedestrian‑oriented cities and the 15‑minute city emphasize modifying the built environment to support active travel. Existing literature generally falls into three streams: (1) studies examining the direct effects of built environment characteristics—such as density, land‑use diversity, connectivity, and access to public transport—on travel mode choice; (2) studies based on the Theory of Planned Behavior that introduce attitudes as mediators between environment and behavior; and (3) studies focusing on travel satisfaction as a post‑travel experience influencing future attitudes and behaviors. Despite attempts to integrate these perspectives, many studies rely on linear and cross‑sectional analyses and are largely based on data from developed countries, limiting their applicability to developing contexts. In Iran, although several studies have explored socio‑economic factors, environmental characteristics, and attitudes affecting active travel, the dynamic relationships among attitudes, satisfaction, and both objective and perceived environmental indicators remain underexplored, particularly in medium‑sized cities such as Urmia. Therefore, this study investigates how the built environment affects travel mode choice through travel attitudes and experiences. Its novelty lies in integrating objective and perceptual environmental indicators while conceptualizing travel satisfaction within a feedback framework to better inform urban design and active travel policies. Methodology This study examines the relationships among the built environment, travel attitudes, socio‑economic characteristics, and travel satisfaction in Urmia. Research variables were grouped into six categories: objective built environment, perceived built environment, socio‑economic characteristics, travel attitudes, travel characteristics, and travel satisfaction. Objective environmental indicators were calculated using GIS. The residential location of each respondent was mapped and a 1000‑meter buffer was generated, within which indicators such as population density, land‑use mix, sidewalk density, pavement quality, distance to key land uses, and bus stop density were measured. Perceived environmental indicators and attitudes were collected through a five‑point Likert‑scale questionnaire covering factors such as safety, visual attractiveness, cleanliness, shade, walking comfort, and traffic management. Socio‑economic variables (age, gender, education, income, car ownership, household size) and travel characteristics (mode, duration, purpose, and mode combinations) were also recorded. Travel Satisfaction (STS) was measured using Ettema’s standardized scale, incorporating affective and cognitive dimensions. Data were collected between April and June 2025 from residents over 18 years old in Urmia. Using Cochran’s formula, a sample size of 400 was estimated. Stratified systematic random sampling produced 430 questionnaires, of which 392 valid responses were analyzed. Data sources included the Urmia Municipality GIS database and in‑person surveys. A pilot test with 30 participants confirmed content validity through expert review and reliability with Cronbach’s alpha values above 0.7. Data analysis was conducted using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS‑SEM). A two‑stage approach was applied to model the feedback effect: first, latent scores of travel satisfaction were extracted; then these scores were entered as predictors of travel attitudes in the second stage. Descriptive analyses were performed in SPSS, and the structural model was estimated using SmartPLS. Results and Discussion The results confirmed the adequacy of the measurement model. All indicator loadings exceeded 0.7, and Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability, and average variance extracted were within acceptable thresholds, indicating satisfactory reliability and convergent validity. Structural model assessment using bootstrapping (5,000 replications) demonstrated strong predictive capability, explaining 57.4% of the variance in travel satisfaction, 74.6% in travel mode choice, and 75.4% in travel attitudes. The findings show that travel mode choice is the most influential determinant of travel satisfaction, followed by travel attitudes, which affect satisfaction both directly and indirectly through mode choice. The perceived built environment also significantly influences satisfaction, with a stronger effect than the objective built environment. In contrast, objective environmental indicators contribute the least to explaining satisfaction, suggesting that individuals’ perceptions and travel experiences play a more decisive role than purely physical characteristics. Further analysis indicates that the perceived built environment has a stronger impact on travel attitudes, travel mode choice, and travel satisfaction than the objective environment. Although the inclusion of socio‑economic status as a control variable reduced the magnitude of these effects, the perceived environment remained the strongest predictor of travel attitudes. This result implies that while perceptions are partly shaped by socio‑economic conditions, the experienced quality of the environment continues to exert a substantial influence on travel behavior. Regarding attitudes, the initial model showed that travel attitudes significantly influence mode choice and indirectly enhance satisfaction. However, this relationship weakened considerably after controlling for socio‑economic factors, indicating that part of the observed association is attributable to inequalities in access to resources and opportunities. Individuals with higher socio‑economic status tend to hold more positive travel attitudes and have greater ability to select preferred travel options. Similarly, the initially strong relationship between travel mode choice and satisfaction declined when socio‑economic and travel characteristics were introduced as control variables. This suggests that higher satisfaction with certain modes is largely related to contextual factors such as shorter travel time, greater comfort, and better accessibility rather than the intrinsic nature of the mode itself. Finally, the study confirmed a reciprocal relationship between travel satisfaction and travel attitudes. In the second stage of the model, travel satisfaction was introduced as an independent variable, and the results showed that it positively reinforces travel attitudes. This finding highlights a feedback mechanism in which positive travel experiences shape future attitudes and behaviors, creating a reinforcing cycle between travel experience, attitudes, and travel choices. Conclusion The research findings indicates that travel behavior is a dynamic and feedback-driven process, not merely a linear one. In this model, travel satisfaction is not merely an ultimate outcome; rather, by influencing subsequent attitudes, it can create a cycle that either reinforces or weakens travel behaviors. Positive experiences increase the likelihood of repeating desirable behaviors such as walking, while negative experiences reduce it. Therefore, to achieve lasting changes in travel behavior, urban management must simultaneously concentrate on improving the perceived quality of the environment and reducing structural and social inequalities. The study, however, faced several limitations: attitudes were surveyed as a global construct, and their cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions were not disaggregated; the data were cross-sectional, thus constraining the ability to conclusively establish causal and feedback relationships; furthermore, reliance on self-reported data may introduce subjective bias. In addition, the results are limited to the urban context of Urmia, and further comparative studies are needed to generalize them to other cities. Accordingly, it is recommended that in urban policy-making, rather than focusing solely on technical and physical indicators, citizens' perceptions and satisfaction should serve as the basis for prioritizing interventions. Low-cost yet effective improvements should be prioritized such as lighting, spatial ordering, and enhancing the sense of security. Furthermore, urban projects should undergo pre- and post-implementation evaluations based on user satisfaction. Policies should be adapted to local socio-economic conditions, and direct imitation of foreign models is inadvisable. Funding There is no funding support. Authors’ Contribution This article is derived from the first author’s (Amin Khalili) doctoral dissertation. He carried out all stages of the research, including writing the text, data processing, analyses, and extraction of results. Dr. Kyoumars Habibi (primary supervisor) contributed to developing the conceptual model, refining the problem statement and article texts, as well as the GIS process and map production. Dr. Bakhtiar Bahrami (secondary supervisor) and Dr. Samira Ramezani (advisor) played roles in scientific guidance, overseeing the research process, and the final review of the article Conflict of Interest Authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We are grateful to all the scientific consultants of this paper. https://jurbangeo.ut.ac.ir/article_108090.html ABSTRACTPost-war cities with a legacy of socio-spatial rupture, ethnic fragmentation and chronic institutional distrust are in critical need of innovative urban planning tools. This study aims to test Gamified Spatial-Participatory Framework (GAM-SC) in four neighbourhoods of Kabul, with the objective of enhancing social cohesion and reducing spatial segregation. This study employed a rigorous sequential mixed-methods design, incorporating a survey of 450 respondents, spatial autocorrelation analysis (GIS), Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), and Agent-Based Modeling (ABM). Intervention implemented through purposeful deployment of game stations at ethnic boundaries of Dasht-e-Barchi (Hazara-dominated) and Karte-Sakhi (Tajik-dominated) neighbourhoods, with active mediation by local cultural brokers. Quantitative findings exhibited that the model significantly increased the cohesion index and reduced the fragmentation index. Furthermore, the model’s direct path on trust and the mediating role of digital participation were confirmed. Simulation also demonstrated higher resilience in intervened neighbourhoods with notable reduction in stability-recovery time. Qualitative analysis revealed four main mechanisms: the successful formation of third spaces (neutral public arenas) at ethnic boundaries; the active co-creation of shared narratives; inclusive participation via low-cost tools; and the perceptible enhancement of perceived justice through transparency. However, women’s participation was limited to 58 percent of men’s, underscoring the model’s effectiveness contingent on the socio-security context. This research, integrating three paradigms - social capital, spatial justice, and gamification - illustrates the strategic applicability potential of GAM-SC in fragile settings; yet it posits that its success hinges on the presence of trusted cultural brokers and continuous rule adaptability.Extended AbstractIntroductionPost-war cities are not merely damaged physical artifacts; they are profoundly traumatized socio-spatial organisms where enduring ruptures - territorial segregation, ethnic polarization, collapsed public trust, and civic bonds’ disintegration - lock communities into cycles of vulnerability. Conventional planning tools, predicated on stable institutional frameworks and baseline intergroup trust, often prove counterproductive because they ignore the psychological and spatial legacies of violence. Against this backdrop, this study develops and rigorously tests the Gamified Spatial-Participatory Cohesion (GAM-SC) framework - a transdisciplinary intervention fusing spatial design, culturally mediated participation, and low-cost gamification into a unified operational model. The empirical ground is provided by four multi-ethnic neighbourhoods in Kabul, Afghanistan a prototypical fragile city where over four decades of armed conflict have systematically deepened ethnic segregation, eroded intercommunal trust to near-zero levels, and engendered a profound suspicion of formal planning. In this setting, the dual aim is to measurably strengthen social cohesion and achieve demonstrable reductions in spatial segregation - outcomes that have remained stubbornly elusive in post-conflict urban interventions. A rich body of literature demonstrates that well-designed public spaces and inclusive participatory governance can catalyse social cohesion in stable, resource-secure cities. Yet this knowledge has not been translated into an operational framework addressing the simultaneous physical, social, and digital determinants of cohesion in post-conflict settings marked by deep intergroup mistrust, resource scarcity, and digital divides. The field thus confronts a critical vacuum: the absence of an empirically validated, integrative model that harnesses gamification’s motivational affordances, cultural mediators’ bridging capacities, and spatial-computational analytical precision. This study fills that gap, offering a theoretical advance and a practical, transferable tool.The GAM-SC framework is underpinned by a central hypothesis: the impact of public spaces on social cohesion in Kabul’s ethnically fractured fabric is significantly moderated by the active involvement of cultural mediators trusted local figures who bridge divides, translate across identity boundaries, and facilitate safe interaction. It is proposed that gamified interventions are effective in mitigating spatial fragmentation only insofar as they actively mobilize and integrate such mediators into the participatory framework. In the absence of this mediating function, gamification runs the risk of being technologically compelling yet socially vacuous. This study addresses two research questions: 1. How does the GAM-SC framework increase social cohesion? 2. To what extent does it reduce spatial fragmentation? The study pursues three objectives. First, it articulates a theoretically grounded, context-sensitive model weaving together spatial configuration analysis, cultural mediation, and gamified public engagement. Second, it subjects the model to rigorous empirical validation through an advanced multi-phase mixed-methods protocol integrating GIS-based spatial analysis, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to test causal pathways, and Agent-Based Modeling (ABM) to simulate emergent socio-spatial dynamics under varying intervention scenarios. Third, it evaluates the framework’s measurable impact on pre-registered indicators: intergroup trust (adapted Putnam-scale with cultural-linguistic calibration and Cronbach’s alpha reliability testing), place attachment (five-point Likert scale), and spatial justice metrics (service distance index and spatial segregation index). The study makes a threefold contribution. It offers a pioneering integrative framework bridging spatial justice, social capital, and urban gamification within fragile post-war cities. It develops an advanced mixed-methods methodology uniquely suited to capturing complex, nonlinear socio-spatial dynamics in environments of extreme mistrust. It furnishes robust, granular empirical evidence from Kabul, a context critically underrepresented in planning scholarship despite its paradigmatic significance. The insights generated are intended to be directly implementable with local resources and transferable to other fractured urban landscapes grappling with rebuilding trust and reshaping divided space. The remainder of the article elaborates theoretical foundations, details the methodology, presents findings, and concludes with a discussion synthesizing theoretical and practical implications and directions for future research.MethodologyA sequential mixed methods design was employed, grounded in a pragmatic epistemology that permitted the systematic integration of quantitative, spatial, and qualitative evidence within a single investigative framework. The quantitative strand began with a pre /post intervention survey of 450 residents drawn from four ethnically heterogeneous neighbourhoods of Kabul - Rikakhana, Dasht e Barchi, Karte Sakhi, and Qala e Zaman Khan - selected to capture the city’s full socio spatial gradient and ethnic diversity. The sample size was determined through an a priori power analysis (G*Power; Cohen’s f² = 0.15, α = 0.05, power = 0.80) and further inflated to account for a design effect of 1.5–2.0, ensuring robust statistical power for the subsequent Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS SEM). The intervention itself consisted of a physical digital (phygital) platform deliberately designed to circumvent Kabul’s severe digital divide. Game stations were situated along the most salient ethnic frontiers, most critically between the predominantly Hazara Dasht e Barchi and the Tajik Karte Sakhi, on neutral ground previously identified through space syntax analysis. Each station integrated large format paper based interactive maps, QR codes affixed to physical markers, and tablet devices operated exclusively by trained local facilitators, thereby enabling participation without personal internet access. The core activity was a weekly team challenge, ‘Hunt for Shared Signs,’ in which mixed ethnicity groups located objects of shared cultural significance such as - tandoor ovens and historic fountains - with bonus points awarded only to ethnically mixed teams and difficulty levels escalating gradually to sustain engagement. A publicly displayed scoreboard provided procedurally transparent rewards, reinforcing perceived fairness. Crucially, the entire process was mediated by locally trusted cultural brokers, including elders and religious figures, who modelled collaborative behaviour and reduced the initial distrust that typically impedes cross group contact in fragile settings.All spatial analyses were conducted in ArcGIS Pro and GeoDa using base layers extracted from OpenStreetMap and recent satellite imagery, verified through extensive ground truthing. Spatial autocorrelation was assessed via Global and Local Moran’s I with 999 random permutations and a K nearest neighbours weight matrix (k = 8), while geographically weighted regression (GWR) examined how the relationship between access to improved public spaces and trust varied across the urban fabric. A composite Social Cohesion Index (SCI) was constructed from four sub scales between group trust, place attachment, civic participation, and ethnic cohesion each measured on a five point Likert scale through a 27 item researcher developed questionnaire that had been validated by an eight expert panel (Content Validity Index = 0.91) and demonstrated high internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.89). The Spatial Fragmentation Index (SFI) was derived from established segregation and isolation metrics computed in GIS, with lower values indicating less segregated space. The causal architecture of the GAM SC model was tested with PLS SEM in SmartPLS 4, with all constructs modelled as reflective and significance levels obtained through bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples. Model fit was evaluated using SRMR, NFI, and RMS_theta, while predictive relevance was confirmed through Stone Geisser’s Q² obtained via blindfolding. To project long term systemic behaviour, an agent based model (ABM) was constructed in NetLogo 6.3.0, populated with 1,000 heterogeneous agents calibrated on baseline trust levels, ethnic identities, and spatial mobility patterns from the survey and GIS data. Agents navigated the actual street network, and their interaction probabilities were governed by rules mirroring the game’s incentive structure. After a burn in period, an exogenous shock was imposed a sudden 40% loss in generalised trust across all agents and the system’s resilience was measured as both the time to return to the pre shock steady state and the maximum amplitude of the trust loss, with 100 independent simulation runs performed per condition. The qualitative strand comprised 48 semi structured interviews and four focus groups, purposively sampled for maximum variation in ethnicity, gender, age, and socio economic status. All sessions were conducted in Dari or Pashto, audio recorded with informed consent, transcribed verbatim, and translated. Systematic grounded theory procedures (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) guided the analysis in MAXQDA 2022, with open, axial, and selective coding proceeding iteratively until thematic saturation was reached after 41 interviews; seven additional interviews confirmed the stability of the findings. An independent second coder analysed 20% of the transcripts, yielding a Cohen’s κ of 0.87, indicating excellent inter coder reliability. The qualitative findings were subsequently integrated with the quantitative and spatial results within a joint display matrix, enabling the extraction of meta inferences that explained the mechanisms underlying the observed changes in the SCI, SFI, and ABM dynamics and strengthening the internal validity of the overall GAM SC framework. Results and DiscussionThe intervention produced statistically significant and practically meaningful shifts. The SCI rose from 58.3 to 74.0 (∆ +15.7 units, +26.9%, p < 0.001), and the SFI decreased from 0.68 to 0.52 (∆ –0.16 units, –23.5%, p = 0.008). Between group trust indicated the largest relative gain (+61.9%, from 2.1 to 3.4 on a 5 point Likert scale), while place attachment grew by 39.3% (2.8 → 3.9). Global Moran’s I for the SCI fell from 0.42 to 0.21 a 50% reduction indicating a significantly more even distribution of cohesion across the urban fabric. PLS SEM confirmed a strong direct effect of GAM SC on between group trust (β = 0.428, p < 0.001) and a significant indirect effect mediated by digital participation (β = 0.152, p = 0.011). The overall model explained 62% of the variance in social cohesion (R² = 0.62). ABM simulations revealed that treated neighbourhoods returned to pre shock stability 43.3% faster than control neighbourhoods (Cohen’s d = 1.85) and sustained higher inter group cooperation throughout the recovery. Qualitative analysis uncovered underlying generative mechanisms shaping these patterns: (1) the creation of third spaces neutral, co managed public arenas at ethnic boundaries reduced perceived threat and enabled positive informal contact; (2) gamified team based activities (e.g., ‘shared heritage hunts’ with collective rewards) re scripted collective memory, forging a superordinate neighbourhood identity that partially displaced exclusionary ethnic categories; (3) low cost phygital tools lowered participation barriers for women, the elderly, and low income groups, fostering inclusive planning; and (4) transparent public display of project progress and resource allocation heightened perceived procedural justice, mitigating feelings of spatial discrimination. Critically, women’s participation reached only 58% of men’s, and the model’s effectiveness was attenuated in peripheral neighbourhoods where acute security constraints restricted full implementation. These findings resolve a persistent paradox: public space can either foster cohesion or intensify conflict depending on its configuration specifically neutral design and game rules rewarding mixed ethnic collaboration and on the active presence of trusted cultural mediators. The moderating role of cultural brokers (f² = 0.15) and the three reinforcing feedback loops cooperation based trust, progress based belonging, and transparency based justice explain how gamified spatial interventions convert latent social capital into resilient inter group cooperation, operationalising Allport’s contact hypothesis and the common ingroup identity model in a context devoid of formal institutional trust. ConclusionThis study supplies robust, multi layered evidence that the GAM SC framework can substantially enhance social cohesion and reduce spatial fragmentation in post war, multi ethnic neighbourhoods. By integrating social capital, spatial justice, and gamification paradigms, the model offers a replicable, low cost strategy aligned with SDG 11 targets on participatory planning and inclusive public spaces. Nevertheless, generalisability is conditional upon three factors: the availability of trusted cultural intermediaries, the feasibility of establishing physically neutral third spaces, and the continuous, context sensitive adaptation of game rules. The limitations security driven under implementation in certain peripheries, constrained female participation, and a short follow up period call for longitudinal, comparative trials in similarly fragile cities (e.g., Mogadishu, Baghdad). In policy terms, GAM SC demonstrates that, even in deeply fractured urban settings, strategically designed playful participation can repair socio spatial bonds - provided that it remains anchored in local social fabric and committed to iterative, ethically vigilant refinement. FundingThis research received no external funding. Authors’ Contribution Aimal Formolly conceived and designed the study, collected and analysed all data, conducted the spatial and computational modelling, interpreted the findings, and wrote the entire manuscript, including the Introduction, Theoretical Framework, Methodology, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Hojatollah Rahimi supervised the research process, critically reviewed the draft and final manuscript, and provided substantive revisions and editorial refinements. Conflict of Interest The authors explicitly state that there is no conflict of interest regarding the authorship and publication of this article.AcknowledgmentsWe are grateful to all the scientific consultants of this paper. https://jurbangeo.ut.ac.ir/article_107967.html ABSTRACT Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) represent one of the most significant innovations in urban mobility, leveraging advanced technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things (IoT) to enhance traffic management, alleviate congestion, improve road safety, and promote urban sustainability. Nevertheless, conventional transportation systems continue to dominate in many Iranian cities, including Ahvaz, resulting in persistent challenges such as traffic congestion, environmental pollution, and operational inefficiency. This study aims to identify and evaluate the key factors influencing the implementation of Intelligent Transportation Systems in Ahvaz. This study employed a descriptive–analytical methodology, utilizing a structured questionnaire as the primary data collection instrument. The statistical population comprised Ahvaz residents and urban transport stakeholders. Based on Sample Power software, a sample of 300 respondents was selected using random sampling. The validity of the questionnaire was confirmed through expert evaluation, while its reliability was verified utilizing Cronbach's alpha coefficient. Data were analyzed using SPSS and AMOS software through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The findings revealed that socio-behavioral, managerial-institutional, policy-regulatory, and technological dimensions exerted significant effects on ITS implementation, with the proposed model explaining 68% of the variance in the dependent variable. Among these dimensions, socio-behavioral (β = 0.86) and managerial-institutional (β = 0.85) factors demonstrated the strongest effects, whereas the technological factor (β = 0.38) exhibited the weakest influence. The results indicate that the successful implementation of ITS in Ahvaz depends not only on the development of technical infrastructure but also on strengthening public trust, enhancing institutional coordination, ensuring sustainable financial resources, and establishing supportive policy and regulatory frameworks. Extended Abstract Introduction Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) have emerged as one of the fundamental pillars of smart cities by integrating advanced technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), big data analytics, cloud computing, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and advanced communication networks to enable real-time, intelligent, and integrated transportation management. The implementation of these systems has significantly enhanced transportation network efficiency, reduced travel time, improved traffic safety, lowered energy consumption and environmental emissions, and improved the quality of public transportation services. Consequently, ITS has become one of the most effective strategies for achieving sustainable urban development. Simultaneously, rapid urbanization, increasing private vehicle ownership, growing urban travel demand, and limited transportation infrastructure capacity have rendered conventional traffic management approaches increasingly ineffective, making the adoption of intelligent transportation technologies an urgent necessity. Although technological advances have created unprecedented opportunities for implementing ITS, international experiences indicate that successful deployment depends on much more than technological infrastructure. Recent studies emphasize that factors such as social acceptance, institutional coordination, managerial capability, regulatory frameworks, sustainable financial resources, and governance capacity are equally critical determinants of successful ITS implementation. Consequently, the focus of contemporary research has shifted from purely technological perspectives toward comprehensive frameworks that simultaneously consider technological, social, institutional, managerial, and policy dimensions. In Iran, despite the urgent need to modernize urban transportation systems to address severe traffic congestion, air pollution, and excessive energy consumption, transportation management in many cities continues to rely predominantly on traditional approaches. Ahvaz, one of the largest metropolitan areas in southwestern Iran, faces particularly acute transportation challenges due to rapid population growth, increasing private vehicle ownership, inadequate roadway capacity, severe air pollution, and unique climatic conditions. Despite several initiatives aimed at developing intelligent transportation infrastructure, the full implementation of ITS programs in Ahvaz remains constrained by numerous technical and non-technical barriers. A review of the existing literature reveals that most previous studies have primarily concentrated on technological and infrastructural aspects of ITS, while relatively few have simultaneously examined the combined effects of technological, socio-behavioral, managerial-institutional, and policy-regulatory factors within a comprehensive analytical framework, particularly in the context of Ahvaz. Therefore, this study aims to identify, analyze, and prioritize the factors influencing the implementation of Intelligent Transportation Systems in Ahvaz. The primary contribution of this research is the development of an integrated Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)-based conceptual framework that simultaneously evaluates the effects of four major dimensions on ITS implementation, thereby providing an evidence-based decision-support framework for urban planners and policymakers responsible for smart transportation development. Methodology This research is an applied study employing a descriptive–analytical approach to identify and analyze the determinants of Intelligent Transportation System implementation in the metropolitan city of Ahvaz. The theoretical framework was established on the premise that successful ITS deployment depends not only on technological infrastructure but also on socio-behavioral, managerial-institutional, and policy-regulatory factors. Accordingly, a four-dimensional conceptual model was developed in which technological, socio-behavioral, managerial-institutional, and policy-regulatory dimensions served as independent variables, while successful ITS implementation constituted the dependent variable. Data collection was conducted in two stages. Primarily, an extensive review of academic literature, scientific publications, technical reports, and policy papers was undertaken to identify the principal indicators and variables affecting ITS implementation and to construct the theoretical framework. Subsequently, empirical data were collected via a researcher-developed questionnaire consisting of 23 items distributed across the four principal constructs. Responses were measured using a five-point Likert scale ranging from "Strongly Disagree" to "Strongly Agree," allowing respondents' perceptions to be quantitatively assessed regarding ITS implementation factors. The study population comprised Ahvaz residents, transportation managers, transportation experts, urban planning specialists, and other stakeholders involved in urban transportation management. Purposive and convenience sampling techniques were employed given the absence of a comprehensive sampling frame. A pilot study involving 30 questionnaires was initially conducted to assess item clarity and preliminary reliability. Sample size was subsequently determined using SamplePower software, considering a 95% confidence level and the statistical requirements of Structural Equation Modeling. A final sample of 300 respondents was determined to be adequate for estimating structural relationships and testing the proposed hypotheses. Content and face validity were evaluated by ten university faculty members and transportation planning experts, whose recommendations were incorporated into the final questionnaire. Instrument reliability was assessed using Cronbach's alpha coefficient, which yielded a value of 0.87, indicating satisfactory internal consistency and high measurement reliability. Data analysis was performed employing both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. Preliminary analyses evaluated respondent characteristics and examined assumptions required for multivariate analysis, including normality, sampling adequacy, and correlation structure. The results of skewness and kurtosis statistics, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure, and Bartlett's Test of Sphericity confirmed that the dataset was suitable for factor analysis and SEM. Construct validity was evaluated through Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Following confirming the measurement model's validity, the structural model was estimated using AMOS software. Model fit was assessed using several goodness-of-fit indices, including CMIN/DF, GFI, AGFI, NFI, CFI, PNFI, PCFI, and RMSEA, all of which demonstrated acceptable model fit. Finally, Structural Equation Modeling was employed to estimate path coefficients, evaluate the influence of each construct on ITS implementation, and determine the explanatory power of the conceptual model. Results and discussion Structural Equation Modeling was employed to evaluate the proposed conceptual model and examine the determinants of Intelligent Transportation System implementation in Ahvaz. Confirmatory Factor Analysis demonstrated that all observed indicators exhibited statistically significant factor loadings, while goodness-of-fit indices—including CMIN/DF, GFI, AGFI, NFI, CFI, and RMSEA—fell within recommended thresholds, confirming the validity and reliability of the measurement model. The structural model revealed that all four dimensions—socio-behavioral, managerial-institutional, policy-regulatory, and technological—exerted statistically significant positive effects on ITS implementation. The coefficient of determination (R² = 0.68) indicated that the proposed model accounts for 68% of the variance in successful ITS implementation, demonstrating substantial explanatory power. These findings confirm that successful ITS deployment depends on the interaction of technological, managerial, institutional, social, and regulatory factors rather than technological infrastructure alone. Among the examined dimensions, the socio-behavioral construct exhibited the strongest influence (β = 0.86). Public trust in intelligent technologies, acceptance of smart services, public awareness, willingness to modify travel behavior, and satisfaction with user experience emerged as the most influential determinants of efficacious ITS implementation. User satisfaction represented the strongest indicator within this construct, highlighting the importance of public engagement, digital literacy, awareness campaigns, and citizen participation alongside technological investment. The managerial-institutional dimension ranked second (β = 0.85). Sustainable financial resources, effective management structures, inter-agency coordination, strategic planning, professional capacity building, and monitoring mechanisms were identified as the principal components of this construct. The findings indicated that even advanced technological infrastructure cannot ensure successful ITS implementation without integrated governance and institutional coordination. Consequently, strengthening collaboration among municipalities, traffic police, transportation organizations, and other governmental agencies is essential for sustainable ITS development. The policy-regulatory dimension also demonstrated a strong positive effect (β = 0.83). Transparent legislation, comprehensive legal frameworks, supportive governmental policies, data governance regulations, cybersecurity provisions, and privacy protection were identified as critical prerequisites for successful implementation. As smart transportation systems increasingly rely on large-scale data generation and exchange, robust legal and regulatory frameworks become indispensable for improving public trust and reducing implementation risks. Although the technological dimension exhibited a statistically significant positive effect, it recorded the smallest standardized coefficient (β = 0.38). This finding does not diminish the importance of technological infrastructure; rather, it indicates that current ITS development in Ahvaz is constrained more by managerial, institutional, and social barriers than by technological limitations. Investments in communication infrastructure, intelligent traffic management systems, sensors, and data-sharing platforms remain necessary; however, their effectiveness depends largely on complementary institutional, managerial, and social capacities. Comparison with previous national and international studies demonstrated broad consistency regarding the importance of public trust, technology acceptance, governance capacity, and institutional coordination. Nevertheless, one of the principal contributions of this research is the identification of socio-behavioral and managerial factors as more influential than purely technological considerations, reflecting the realities of many developing cities where governance weaknesses, limited institutional capacity, and insufficient public trust represent more significant barriers than technological deficiencies. Overall, the findings suggest that sustainable ITS development in Ahvaz requires an integrated strategy combining technological advancement with institutional reform, governance improvement, legal development, sustainable financing, and enhanced public participation. Conclusion The results demonstrate that successful Intelligent Transportation System implementation in metropolitan Ahvaz is a multidimensional process requiring the simultaneous interaction of technological, socio-behavioral, managerial-institutional, and policy-regulatory factors. Structural Equation Modeling revealed that the proposed framework accounted for 68% of the variance in ITS implementation, confirming its strong explanatory capability. Consequently, smart transportation development extends far beyond technological infrastructure and requires comprehensive institutional, managerial, social, and legal support. Among the investigated dimensions, socio-behavioral factors exerted the strongest influence (β = 0.86), emphasizing the importance of citizens' trust, technology acceptance, public awareness, and user satisfaction. Managerial-institutional (β = 0.85) and policy-regulatory (β = 0.83) dimensions ranked second and third, highlighting the critical roles of integrated governance, organizational coordination, sustainable financing, transparent legislation, and supportive regulatory frameworks. Although the technological dimension demonstrated a significant positive influence, its comparatively minor effect (β = 0.38) indicates that managerial and social constraints currently outweigh technological restrictions in Ahvaz. From a theoretical perspective, this study contributes to the ITS literature by proposing an integrated framework that simultaneously incorporates technological, governance, policy, and socio-behavioral dimensions. Practically, the findings suggest that successful ITS implementation requires comprehensive policies integrating digital infrastructure development, institutional capacity building, public awareness enhancement, regulatory reform, sustainable financial mechanisms, and effective inter-organizational coordination. Such an integrated approach can significantly improve the effectiveness of intelligent transportation investments and facilitate sustainable urban mobility and smarter transportation governance in Ahvaz. Funding There is no funding support. Authors’ Contribution Authors contributed equally to the conceptualization and writing of the article. All of the authors approved thecontent of the manuscript and agreed on all aspects of the work declaration of competing interest none. Conflict of Interest Authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We are grateful to all the scientific consultants of this paper. https://jurbangeo.ut.ac.ir/article_108770.html ABSTRACT Mashhad, as one of Iran's most populous and religious metropolises, produces a multi-layered and heterogeneous lived experience for diverse social groups. This paper aims to explain the nexus between the city's spatial structure, the lived experience of residents, and the process of reproducing class inequality in Mashhad. It adopts a qualitative study based on secondary data analysis with a critical-comparative approach. The theoretical framework draws upon Lyotard's perspectives on postmodernity, Foucault's analysis of power and knowledge, and the urban theories of Giddens, Bourdieu, and the Chicago School. Research data were collected from academic sources, documents, and secondary statistical data, and were analyzed through conceptual coding, thematic organization, and critical discourse analysis. The findings indicate that Mashhad's spatial organization, characterized by the concentration of northern and southern poles and the expansion of informal settlements, leads to the reproduction of economic, social, and cultural inequalities. The lived experience of citizens varies according to income level, social capital, and spatial location, while architecture, the pattern of public service distribution, and urban surveillance mechanisms play significant roles in shaping everyday interactions and individual identities. Simultaneously, modernity and postmodernity in Mashhad manifest not only in the physical fabric and lifestyle but also in the meaning and perception of space. Drawing on data from 2025, the paper presents a critical portrayal of the city's current condition and proposes strategies for reducing the class divide and enhancing the quality of urban lived experience. These strategies emphasize more equitable distribution of resources, strengthening equal access to services, reducing the spatial concentration of poverty, increasing citizen participation, and revising urban development policies. Extended Abstract Introduction Twenty-first-century urban life is marked by intensified social stratification and differentiated access to urban space. The city of Mashhad—the second largest metropolis of Iran and a major religious-economic hub—provides a significant case for examining how class hierarchies are spatially and symbolically reproduced. Although the city has experienced rapid physical transformation, the lived experiences of its residents remain deeply uneven. The polarization between affluent northern districts such as Ahmad-Abad, Elahiyeh, and Sajad, and underprivileged southern districts such as Sidi, Tabarsi-North, and Qaleh-Sakhteman, illustrates the entanglement of space, power, and social inequality. This study adopted a critical and comparative approach to investigate the dynamic relationship among urban form, social structure, and lived experience in Mashhad. It focuses on the ways material conditions, cultural meanings, institutional practices, and everyday actions interact to produce differentiated urban realities. The research draws upon postmodern and critical urban theories, particularly Lyotard’s concept of multiple narratives and the postmodern condition, Foucault’s analyses of power, discourse, and spatial control, Bourdieu’s notions of habitus, capital, and social field, and Giddens’s structuration theory. It also integrates insights from the Chicago School of urban sociology and Henri Lefebvre’s “right to the city” perspective. Within this theoretical constellation, the city is conceived not as a neutral container of life but as a social field in which economic, cultural, and symbolic capitals are distributed, contested, and reproduced through everyday practices. The aim is therefore not merely to describe spatial inequality, but to reveal the mechanisms of power and meaning that sustain it, while also identifying the micro-resistances through which residents negotiate and challenge exclusion. This perspective bridges structural forces with human agency and treats lived experience as a central source of knowledge about urban transformation. Methodology The research employed a qualitative-analytical design with a critical-comparative orientation. Three interrelated methodological components were combined: (1) content analysis of academic and policy documents; (2) comparative urban analysis across Iranian and regional cities; and (3) secondary field data analysis from urban surveys and social reports published during 2024–2025. Theoretical and textual content analysis covered more than 120 scientific studies, including peer-reviewed articles, dissertations, and municipal reports published between 1400 and 2025. These materials were systematically reviewed to identify dominant discourses concerning urban inequality, spatial differentiation, and lived experience in Mashhad. The analysis extracted key conceptual categories, including spatial segregation, symbolic exclusion, uneven development, urban subjectivity, and everyday resistance. The comparative framework placed empirical findings from Mashhad with those of comparable studies conducted in Tehran, Isfahan, Cairo, and Mumbai. This comparison highlighted both cross-cultural differences and global similarities in the reproduction of class relations through urban space. Secondary data synthesis drew on national census information, urban quality-of-life surveys conducted in 2025, and academic field projects. These sources were used to reconstruct Mashhad’s socio-spatial pattern across three broad social strata. The upper class comprises predominantly residents of the planned northern districts characterized by high economic and cultural capital and relatively strong access to advanced services. The middle and working classes inhabit mixed-use central districts with moderate access to services and more diverse social networks. Lower-class and peripheral populations are concentrated in informal and semi-formal southern settlements, where institutional resources and urban amenities are comparatively limited. The unit of analysis is the “urban lived experience,” conceptualized across three analytical levels. At the micro level, the study examines individual perceptions, daily spatial routines, mobility, and experiences of inclusion or exclusion. At the meso level, it considers social networks, neighborhood interactions, collective practices, and subcultural formation. At the macro level, it analyzes urban policy, governance, planning priorities, and the discursive production of space. The triangulation of textual, spatial, and statistical data strengthened internal validity and enabled a multidimensional interpretation of urban inequality. The analytical framework combines Foucault’s spatial analysis of power, Bourdieu’s field theory, Lyotard’s pluralism of meaning, Giddens’s structuration approach, and Lefebvre’s emphasis on urban appropriation and citizenship. Together, these perspectives clarify how structural constraints and human agency interact in the continuous production of urban life. The interpretation also emphasizes that spatial inequality should be understood as a process rather than a fixed condition. Neighborhood boundaries are continuously produced through housing markets, infrastructure decisions, transportation systems, cultural investment, policing, religious practices, and residents’ own patterns of movement. Consequently, the distinction between center and periphery is not simply geographic; it is institutional, symbolic, and experiential. A resident may be physically close to a major urban facility while remaining socially distant from the opportunities and recognition associated with it. Conversely, peripheral communities can generate strong forms of belonging and collective identity despite limited material resources. This distinction is crucial for understanding why conventional indicators of accessibility or service provision may underestimate the complexity of lived inequality. Following Denzin’s principle of triangulation, the study therefore treats statistical evidence, textual representations, spatial patterns, and experiential accounts as complementary rather than interchangeable forms of knowledge. While the convergence of these findings reinforces the overall interpretation, their divergences reveal contradictions that provide valuable analytical insights. The findings further indicate that urban governance should recognize the temporal dimension of inequality. The effects of redevelopment projects may persist well beyond the completion of physical construction, reshaping neighborhood identities, property values, mobility patterns, and social networks over time. Participatory planning should consequently include continuous consultation, monitoring, and evaluation rather than one-time consultation. Such an approach would allow planners to identify unintended consequences, preserve valuable community networks, and adjust interventions according to changing local needs. In this sense, spatial justice is not a final condition achieved through a single project, but an ongoing democratic process through which diverse residents negotiate resources, recognition, and the right to shape the city. It also requires attention to everyday mobility, because unequal access to transportation can reproduce exclusion even where housing and services appear geographically proximate. Improving connectivity, affordability, safety, and accessibility can therefore strengthen residents’ practical capacity to participate in city life and claim public urban space. Results and discussion The results reveal that lived experience in Mashhad is profoundly stratified along spatial and symbolic lines, reflecting a dialectical interplay between domination and resistance. At the micro level, individuals from different social classes inhabit distinct spatial worlds and develop different relationships with mobility, services, public space, and urban identity. For affluent populations, the urban environment functions as a spatial extension of privilege. Gated residential environments, aestheticized commercial centers, high-quality public amenities, and cultural institutions reinforce their economic and symbolic capital. Their everyday mobility is facilitated by better infrastructure and greater purchasing power, allowing them to select spaces that affirm status and social distinction. By contrast, residents of southern peripheries navigate the city through improvisation, adaptation, and resilience. They construct informal social infrastructures, including community markets, home-based workshops, neighborhood services, and local religious gatherings. These practices function simultaneously as coping mechanisms, sources of social reproduction, and forms of micro-resistance to structural exclusion. At the meso level, neighborhood social capital varies sharply between northern and southern districts. Northern areas tend to display forms of networked individualism organized around professional, educational, and consumption-based ties. In southern communities, dense kinship networks, neighborhood solidarity, reciprocal assistance, and informal trust compensate partly for institutional neglect. Such networks provide access to information, employment opportunities, childcare, economic support, and emotional resources that are not equally available through formal institutions. Women in marginalized districts have emerged as vital agents of community organization through cultural workshops, informal education, home-based initiatives, and neighborhood cooperation. Their actions transform gender dynamics within both public and domestic spheres and demonstrate that marginalized groups are not passive recipients of urban policy. Youth similarly use local networks and digital platforms to articulate alternative identities and make neglected urban conditions more visible. At the macro level, municipal planning documents and public representations frequently privilege the image of Mashhad as a pilgrimage metropolis, investment hub, and symbolically significant religious city. This “official discourse of sanctified modernity” can obscure socio-spatial inequality and legitimize uneven development by presenting redevelopment primarily as progress, modernization, or urban improvement. The discourse analysis of policy texts and local media indicates that euphemistic language surrounding “urban improvement,” renewal, and beautification may conceal processes of displacement, exclusion, and gentrification in southern areas. At the same time, digital activism and citizen media have begun to diversify the dominant narratives of urban life. The residents increasingly use digital spaces to document everyday difficulties, challenge official representations, and circulate counter-discourses that make marginalization visible. These developments suggest that control over urban meaning is increasingly contested rather than monopolized by formal institutions. The comparative analysis confirms that Mashhad’s urban inequalities resemble broader patterns observed in Tehran and Isfahan, while being intensified by the city’s religious tourism, land speculation, population mobility, and migratory inflows. Comparative evidence from Cairo and Mumbai further suggests that cities across the Global South commonly combine informal urbanism, classed spatiality, uneven infrastructure, and differentiated access to services. Nevertheless, Mashhad presents a distinctive configuration because its religious economy and symbolic geography intertwine sacred functions with socio-economic processes. Pilgrimage-related development, investment in central and northern areas, and the management of peripheral settlements together influence how different groups perceive and use the city. Thus, class inequality in Mashhad cannot be explained exclusively through income or housing markets; it must also be understood through cultural legitimacy, religious symbolism, institutional priorities, and competing definitions of desirable urban space. Conclusion This study conceptualizes the city as both a structure of domination and a field of creative agency. Mashhad’s spatial duality—affluent north versus marginalized south—illustrates how urban form materializes and reinforces class relations. The distribution of infrastructure, public resources, cultural amenities, educational opportunities, and desirable environments corresponds closely to Bourdieu’s forms of economic, social, cultural, and symbolic capital. Spatial privilege can therefore be converted into social distinction, while spatial deprivation may become normalized as an apparently natural feature of particular neighborhoods. Yet, following Foucault’s notion of capillary power, resistance is not external to power but emerges within its everyday operation. Practices of survival, mutual assistance, self-organization, and symbolic appropriation among marginalized residents constitute forms of micro-politics through which urban space is continually reclaimed and reinterpreted. Lefebvre’s idea of the “right to the city” provides a normative horizon for interpreting these practices. This right involves not merely physical access to urban space, but the capacity to shape its meanings, uses, rhythms, and future development. The study therefore shifts attention from macro-economic indicators of inequality toward the micro-practices through which citizens appropriate, negotiate, and produce urban meanings under constraint. From a postmodern standpoint, urban reality in Mashhad cannot be adequately captured through a single narrative. Instead, it is constituted through multiple voices and competing discourses—official, popular, gendered, religious, local, and digital—each generating different interpretations of urban life. Lyotard’s concept of “incredulity toward metanarratives” is particularly relevant because it encourages recognition of plural experiences rather than acceptance of a homogeneous “Mashhad identity.” The empirical synthesis indicates that spatial injustice in Mashhad results from the interaction of material and symbolic processes: unequal investment, differentiated infrastructure, selective planning, biased discourse, and the naturalization of social difference through symbolic violence. Nevertheless, the persistence of community networks, particularly among women and youth, demonstrates that agency is never completely suppressed. Local initiatives represent a form of quiet urban resilience that challenges hegemonic spatial orders while sustaining everyday life. These findings suggest that inequality should be addressed not only through redistribution of material resources but also through recognition, participation, and transformation of the narratives through which neighborhoods and residents are represented. In conclusion, urban policy and planning in Mashhad should move from predominantly technocratic approaches toward participatory and justice-oriented paradigms. Sustainable urban development requires the systematic incorporation of lived experience, local narratives, and social inclusion into planning and governance. Three priorities are especially important: (1) redistribution and equitable improvement of public, cultural, educational, and recreational spaces; (2) recognition and support of informal social infrastructures that sustain marginalized communities; and (3) promotion of meaningful bottom-up participation in decisions affecting neighborhood transformation. Such policies should also strengthen transparency in redevelopment processes, protect vulnerable residents from displacement, and create channels through which women, youth, and peripheral communities can influence urban agendas. Only by integrating the perspectives and knowledge of marginalized groups can Mashhad move toward greater spatial justice, democratic urban citizenship, and a shared sense of belonging. Funding There is no funding support. Authors’ Contribution Authors contributed equally to the conceptualization and writing of the article. All of the authors approved thecontent of the manuscript and agreed on all aspects of the work declaration of competing interest none. Conflict of Interest Authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We are grateful to all the scientific consultants of this paper. https://jurbangeo.ut.ac.ir/article_108835.html ABSTRACT The global trend of metropolitanization is growing faster than the population. Despite the lack of a unified theoretical framework for defining unaffordable housing, this crisis is recognized as one of the greatest challenges facing metropolises. Unaffordable housing is conceptualized as a phenomenon, and its consequences, constituent entities, and structural determinants are examined systematically. Using a systematic review and critical realism as methodological approaches, this study first describes the events and consequences of unaffordable housing at the empirical reality level. Identified outcomes include increased poverty, social segregation, informal settlements, diminished public trust, reduced quality of life, and environmental threats. The structural and causal relationships underlying this phenomenon are examined within a systematic domain, which includes governance and housing policy structures, economic frameworks, spatial and urban infrastructure configurations, socio-cultural structures, and ultimately, urban sustainability structures. The interpretation of findings involved an examination of both internal and external relationships within the structures that give rise to the phenomenon. Through thematic analysis of the literature within the scope of this systematic review, the issue was explained within five theoretical frameworks. Subsequently, an explanatory inference hypothesizes two causal dimensions of the latent reality, drawn from Thapa and Omland’s approach within critical realism. The results indicate that mechanisms such as housing accumulation and the misalignment of local government policies with institutions and actors reproduce unaffordable housing. This study highlights the multi-level understanding of the phenomenon for effective policies. This insight urges us to identify effective strategies through institutional reforms in urban governance. Extended Abstract Introduction The unaffordable housing in megacities is a complex and escalating global issue. Governmental interventions, even in free-market economies, are often necessitated by the housing crisis and human rights mandates. However, policies have frequently been misapplied, with affordable housing initiatives sometimes benefiting the middle class more than the intended low-income populations, and occasionally contributing to increased homelessness and informal settlements. A significant portion of the systematic document is dedicated to elucidating the complex, multi-layered causal mechanisms underlying urban housing unaffordability. It critiques the tendency of policymakers to rely on superficial observations rather than analyzing the intricate decision-making structures, the interplay of various actors, and the dynamics of political power. The affordability problem is viewed less as a market failure and more as a consequence of inequitable resource distribution. Therefore, a multi-faceted understanding of urban housing markets - analyzed in relation to local structures - is deemed necessary, rather than focusing solely on supply shortages. The research categorizes existing studies on housing unaffordability into four theoretical dimensions: 1. Classical Economics: It concentrates on supply and demand, land use, zoning, subsidies, and taxes, linking housing affordability to factors such as access to employment, services, amenities, and the price-to-income ratio. 2. Political Economy of Space: This perspective emphasizes the roles of national and local governments, market relations, political and economic interests, financial considerations, and collective action in shaping housing policies and their impact on affordability. It critically examines the “commodification” of housing and the mechanisms of support. 3. Good Urban Governance, State Theory, and Institutionalism: This approach concentrates on the functions of various governmental and institutional bodies in policy formulation, planning, and the execution of affordable housing strategies. It addresses support mechanisms, legal frameworks, and stakeholder involvement, acknowledging that policy system variations can lead to diverse outcomes and that coherent budgeting for affordable housing programs necessitates overcoming institutional barriers. 4. Social-Spatial Justice and the Right to Housing: This viewpoint frames housing through the principles of equitable service and resource distribution, marginalized communities’ recognition, and their participation in policy development. It obligates governments to actively intervene in the housing market, prevent discrimination, and promote equitable distribution through policy and conflict resolution, asserting housing as a fundamental human right. Current research exhibits a notable gap, underscoring the need for multi-level, in-depth analyses to fully explain the causal mechanisms of housing unaffordability in contemporary metropolises, thereby providing a robust foundation for informing effective urban policy interventions. Methodology Through the critical realist paradigm, three layers of reality are distinguished as follows: · Empirical Reality, which refers to the observed events and their consequences. · Actual Reality encompasses events and outcomes that occur. · Real Reality comprises the underlying structures, entities, causal powers, and relationships that exist independently of observation and are responsible for generating phenomena. Thapa and Omland (2018) propose a four-step framework for implementing critical realism, comprising the following stages: (1) description of events, (2) identification of entities and their associations, (3) theoretical abduction, and (4) retroduction for identifying candidate mechanisms. Applying retroduction and abduction as analytical logic, moving from observable effects/events to inferring the underlying causes. A qualitative research strategy was adopted, focusing on housing in megacities from 2009 to 2025. Data collection was primarily conducted through a systematic review from Databases such as Google Scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, and ResearchGate, resulting in 59 relevant sources after filtering. Thematic analysis has been used to identify and categorize the events and consequences of housing unaffordability. Subsequently, explanatory analysis was applied to identify entities, structures, and their causal relationships. then, the roots, causes, sources, and context of these relationships were searched to uncover structures and their interactions. Finally, findings were reinterpreted to formulate two mechanisms, combining all stages with the layer of latent reality. Results and Discussion Nine pervasive outcomes of housing unaffordability were identified: · Economic Burden on Households: Manifesting as housing stress, cost burden, unmet non-housing basic needs, and homelessness. Concepts such as 'housing stress' (He et al., 2022:6; Liu et al., 2021:5; Liu & Ong, 2021:7) and its most severe form, homelessness (Pawson et al., 2020:17), as well as 'cost burden' for renters (Liu & Ma, 2021:5; Ortiz et al., 2020:505), fall directly into this category. Housing shortages also precipitate crises in other essential needs (Amar & Armitage, 2025). The financial pressure imposed by housing costs reduces household resources available for other basic requirements, such as food, medicine, healthcare services, and clothing (Saha et al., 2025). · Spatial gaps: Such as urban segregation, urban exclusion, and informal settlements. As land prices rise in central areas, affordable housing is often located on the urban periphery or in areas with lower land values. This leads to the spatial segregation of low-income populations (Shi et al., 2015; Won, 2022). Such segregation can also result in the urban exclusion of residents from opportunities and urban services. · Displacement: Often a consequence of redevelopment, gentrification pushes residents to the periphery. Typically, these projects are implemented on the urban periphery due to cost and land acquisition considerations (Galster & Lee, 2020). There is a significant difference in population mobility between residents of formal subsidized housing and those of informal housing, which reflects locational preferences and commuting time. Redevelopment and gentrification are also among the policies that, while generating housing supply, displace the existing resident population from the area (Celhay & Gil, 2020:9; Gopalan & Venkataraman, 2015:134; Ye et al., 2017:2). · Jeopardized Health and Well-being: Direct negative impacts of housing cost burden on physical and psychological health, and also access to food and medicine. Some researchers have directly linked housing cost burden to negative outcomes in physical health (e.g., hypertension) and limited access to essential resources such as food (Saha et al., 2025; Wang et al., 2024; Wang & Melton, 2023; Daniel et al., 2020:37). In general, the relationship between housing costs and restricted access to food, as well as its impact on health, is readily understandable. · Job-Housing Mismatch and Increased Commute Distances: Leading to traffic congestion, strain on infrastructure, reduced balance, and decreased productivity. The settlement of populations on the urban periphery results in a mismatch between employment and residential locations. This spatial mismatch increases commuting time and creates a spatial gap between residence and workplace. The increase in distances places pressure on transportation infrastructure, elevates traffic volumes, and reduces the efficiency of the transport network (Ye et al., 2017:8-10). · Reduced Public Trust and Participation: Public dissatisfaction and resistance to urban management initiatives and actions. Local public pressure has emerged as a municipal response to the imperatives of affordable housing (Davis & Huennekens, 2024:15). Political pressure, the capacity to mobilize resources, and local public pressure can also influence the fate of housing support and provision policies. Redevelopment and consolidation projects aimed at producing subsidized housing generate conflicts of interest and, if not properly managed, lead to a decline in stakeholder trust in local government (Adkins et al., 2017; Davis & Huennekens, 2024:15; Potsiou et al., 2022). This, in turn, results in resistance to state interventions. · Safety and Security Threats: Resulting from low safety perceptions, insecurity, and challenges in multi-family housing. Security issues or perceptions of lower safety constitute a specific area of study and are considered factors influencing resident satisfaction (Ortiz et al., 2020:505; Mehta et al., 2020:78; Celhay & Gil, 2020:6). An outcome such as multi-family housing, which violates privacy, threatens household security (Martin et al., 2018). · Environmental Impacts: Such as increased energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and unsustainable materials. This outcome, indirectly through amplified commuting distances resulting from spatial segregation, can lead to higher energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Unsustainable buildings and the use of polluting materials are also among the problems associated with unaffordable housing (Lawson et al., 2022:8; Saha et al., 2025; Amar & Armitage, 2025). · Commodification of Housing: Housing became an asset for capital accumulation and speculation, rather than a part of public interests. Housing serves as a capital asset and a tool for speculation and profit maximization in metropolises. High-density construction in central and commercial districts is pursued to increase value and attract investment, rather than achieving public benefit. Thus, housing has become a lever for accumulation and investment (Daniel et al., 2020:46; Martin et al., 2018; Dezhi et al., 2016:3). Key themes emerge through central research questions. The phenomenon of unaffordability was conceptualized as an emergent outcome arising from the interaction of the underlying five structures-real reality layer: 1. Governance and Policy: Characterized by central government mandates, local government reliance on land-based revenues, and the often-ineffective implementation of housing policies. 2. Housing Economics and Resource Provision: Defined by land or construction costs, inadequate financial support, and insufficient household income. 3. Spatial and Urban Infrastructure: Influencing the location of affordable housing (often peripheral), access to public transport, and job-housing balance. 4. Social and Public Perception: Encompassing community safety, social support, residential satisfaction, and participation. 5. Urban Sustainability: Incorporating environmental quality, social inclusion, and long-term economic viability related to housing. The theoretical framework of this study draws on multiple perspectives: classical economics and urban economics, the political economy of space, institutionalism and urban governance, the theories of social justice, spatial justice, and the right to housing, urban sustainability and resilience approaches. The complex interplay of components in these structures generates the phenomenon of housing unaffordability. Analytical steps with retroductive reasoning identify the underlying causal mechanisms generating unaffordable housing in metropolitan areas. The synthesis of all findings and causal relations yielded unaffordability mechanisms. Therefore, the analysis traces backward through systematic literature to evaluate mechanisms, adhering to critical realism’s emphasis on retroduction as a method for uncovering generative mechanisms. Two mechanisms emerged: First, the commodification of housing, transforming it from a consumer good into an investment asset under prevalent neoliberalism, drives up housing prices and speculative demand. A strong correlation exists between housing prices and investments, supported by the economic structure where housing serves as a secure investment, intensifying demand. While China has implemented strategies to curb speculation, the underlying trend remains evident in other contexts. Second, Policy misalignment between local governments and central agencies regarding housing policy leads to policy failure. This results in failed affordable housing programs, secondary impacts, and local governments facing budget limitations, often deferring responsibility to national levels. The influence of economic elites in shaping housing policies further exacerbates this issue. This hypothesis finds strong support across various megacities. Conclusion The research describes a critical bidirectional relationship between housing unaffordability and urban governance structures in metropolitan areas. Market-driven strategies like gentrification and urban renewal, often framed as equitable, instead deepen spatial inequalities and displacement. Local governments' dependence on land revenues exacerbates job-housing mismatches by concentrating low-income housing on peripheries. The research underscores the need for context-specific approaches that address institutional structures, actor networks, and governance dynamics to foster equitable housing solutions. Housing unaffordability in megacities is not an isolated issue but a complex, multi-layered phenomenon shaped by the interplay of governance, economics, spatial planning, and social dynamics within competitive urban environments. The key contribution lies in unearthing these hidden layers and the intricate networks of formal and informal actors that shape housing outcomes. Effective intervention requires understanding these causal mechanisms and interdependencies. Rather than dismissing these factors, policymakers should proactively engage stakeholders and integrate these dynamics into housing policies to prevent housing from becoming a tool for capital speculation. The findings emphasize tailored interventions, accounting for each megacity’s unique characteristics and stakeholder networks, to ensure sustainable and inclusive urban development. Funding There is no funding support. Authors’ Contribution The second author contributed to the conceptualization, while the first author was responsible for the writing and implementation of the article. The content of the article and all its aspects have been agreed upon by both authors. Conflict of Interest Authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We are grateful to all the scientific consultants of this paper. https://jurbangeo.ut.ac.ir/article_108767.html ABSTRACT The regeneration of deteriorated and inefficient urban fabrics is a fundamental concern of urban management. It has been frequently addressed in urban planning regulations and various development plans. This is due to the fact that, beyond their broad spatial extent, these urban fabrics carry significant economic, cultural, social, and environmental ramifications. This research evaluates land readjustment in deteriorated urban fabrics with an approach of balanced physical development. It investigates the feasibility of regenerating the deteriorated Masjediri fabric in Zanjan, simultaneously addressing the deficit of standard public spaces while considering various dimensions of urban sustainability. This research is applied in purpose, qualitative and descriptive in methodology, and mixed-methods in nature. The case study area is the deteriorated fabric of the Lower Masjediri district in Zanjan. The research results indicate that, despite sixteen years having passed since the approval and implementation of the city's Detailed Urban Plan, the Lower Masjediri fabric remains spatially, socially, and economically deteriorated and inefficient. However, land readjustment with a balanced physical development approach - as a sustainable solution - demonstrates high potential for spatial reorganization, the creation of standard thoroughfares, and the improvement of the quality of life. Furthermore, spatial justice and urban sustainability can be achieved by allocating 50% of residential and commercial land parcels to compensate for the deficit in standard per capita spaces. Consequently, implementing land readjustment with a balanced physical development approach can facilitate not merely physical changes, but a structural transformation in urban management, fostering spatial justice and enhancing the quality of life within the deteriorated Masjediri fabric of Zanjan. Extended Abstract Introduction Deteriorated and inefficient urban fabrics constitute one of the most complex and fundamental challenges to sustainable urban development in Iran and numerous developing countries. The extensive expansion of these areas, coupled with their multi-dimensional economic, cultural, social, and environmental consequences, poses a serious threat to urban resilience and sustainability. Inherent characteristics of these fabrics, such as severe physical degradation, inadequate urban infrastructure and services, fragmented land parcels, narrow and substandard streets, and high population density, render these areas highly vulnerable to natural disasters - particularly earthquakes in a seismically active country like Iran - and human-made crises.Traditional urban renewal approaches, predominantly based on the "demolition and reconstruction" paradigm, have frequently failed or proven to be excessively slow and costly due to the need for massive state investment, social resistance caused by forced displacement, and the disregard for property rights and neighborhood social cohesion. In this context, Land Readjustment (LR) has emerged as a sustainable, participatory, and innovative strategy in urban governance, attracting significant attention from both academic and executive circles. Statistics indicate that over 166,000 hectares - equivalent to 23% of urban areas - in Iran are classified as inefficient fabrics. At the provincial level, Zanjan contains 1,200 hectares of deteriorated fabric, of which 511 hectares concentrated in Zanjan city, accounting for 8.3% of the city's total area. This research aims to assess the feasibility and application of the LR technique in the Lower Masjediri neighborhood of Zanjan, emphasizing balanced physical development - focusing on per capita standards and sustainability dimensions. The analytical framework integrates Bentley’s physical permeability models (University of Oxford), Ziyari’s per capita and public space deficit estimation methods, and the Jenks and Jones sustainability framework. The primary research question is whether LR, approached through balanced physical development, can serve as a feasible and operational spatial planning solution to address standard per capita deficits and enhance the quality of life in this deteriorated fabric. Land Readjustment is a systematic process wherein owners of scattered, small-scale plots within a designated area voluntarily contribute their land into a "Land Pooling" mechanism. Following the design of a new street network, the provision of standard public and service spaces, and infrastructure upgrades, the plots are returned to the owners with added value, maintaining proportionality to their initial contributions. Rooted in successful experiences in countries like Japan (Kukaku-Seiri), South Korea, and several European nations, this tool enables balanced and equity-oriented development without requiring heavy upfront financial investment from the government.The theoretical foundation of this research rests on four pillars: (a) The morphology and pathology of inefficient urban fabrics; (b) The principles, processes, and economic mechanisms of LR (particularly the concept of Value Capture); (c) Iranian urban planning standards (regarding per capita spaces); and (d) Sustainable urban development dimensions, with a specific focus on Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG 11). A review of the literature reveals a research gap regarding the operational application of the LR model, integrated with balanced physical development indicators and precise spatial-economic balance sheet simulations in mid-sized Iranian cities, which this study aims to address. The primary objective is to evaluate the feasibility and formulate an operational model for the Land Readjustment technique in deteriorated urban fabrics, emphasizing "Balanced Physical Development." Specifically, it seeks to regenerate the Lower Masjediri deteriorated fabric, compensate for the deficit in standard public and service space per capita, and achieve various dimensions of urban sustainability and spatial justice through this participatory mechanism. Methodology This research is applied in purpose and descriptive-analytical in nature, utilizing a mixed-methods approach. Data Collection: Included library studies (reviewing upstream documents and Zanjan’s Detailed Urban Plan), field surveys, photography, and direct observation of the area's physical condition. Analytical Tools: Google Earth and ArcGIS software were employed for spatial and physical analyses. Analysis Method: First, the current land-use and street network were compared with approved standards to calculate the spatial deficit - excluding the LR mechanism. Subsequently, using population projection methods (for the planning horizon of 2036 / 1415 SH, with an estimated population of 2,495) and economic modeling (capturing value added from land-use changes and permissible density increases), the LR scenario was simulated, and the project's final feasibility balance sheet established. The study area is the "Lower Masjediri" deteriorated fabric in eastern Zanjan. It is bounded by Towhid Street to the north, Sadr Jahan Street to the east, Khayyam Street to the south, and South Saadi Street to the west. According to the approved Detailed Urban Plan, this zone requires serious intervention due to plot fragmentation, narrow streets, and physical deterioration. The total area is approximately 108,854 square meters, predominantly consisting of residential and commercial land uses. Results and Discussion Despite the passage of 16 years since the approval of the city's Detailed Urban Plan (2009), analyses indicate that the area remains physically, socially, and economically deteriorated and inefficient. Key quantitative findings include: · Street Network: Approximately 49.77% of the total street length has an average width of less than 6 meters, severely hindering emergency and vehicular access. Currently, only 13% of the fabric is allocated to streets, far below the 20–25% minimum standard approved by the Supreme Council of Urban Planning and Architecture of Iran. · Land Use and Per Capita Deficit: Residential (59.3%) and commercial (18.9%) uses dominate. Calculations show a severe spatial deficit. Without the LR mechanism, the total spatial deficit for urban uses (educational, health, green spaces, etc.) and street widening is estimated at 41,649 square meters. · Land Readjustment (LR) Modeling: The research demonstrates that allocating 50% of residential and commercial land areas - through owner participation and land redistribution - can compensate for this deficit. To incentivize owners and offset the reduction in plot area, three economic and physical mechanisms were designed: A 20% increase in the monetary value of each redeveloped plot compared to the current state. Permission for mixed-use development (commercial on the ground floor of residential buildings) with incentive coefficients. Increased building density: Applying a 60% footprint ratio with permission to construct 4 residential floors. · Final Spatial-Economic Balance Sheet: By applying permissible densities and coefficients within the LR framework, the total buildable floor area in the zone reaches 99,049.68 square meters. Meanwhile, the total spatial deficit, after deducting public areas and street widening - accounting for value capture and compensatory mechanisms - is estimated at 90,268.4 square meters. Consequently, the project's spatial-economic balance sheet is positive, definitively guaranteeing the economic viability of the plan for owners and investors through the surplus building capacity. · Physical Achievements: Implementation will create a network of streets with a minimum width of 10 to 12 meters, increase physical permeability, and establish a standard spatial hierarchy, directly reducing seismic vulnerability and improving public transport accessibility. Conclusion The synthesis of analyses demonstrates that Land Readjustment, approached through balanced physical development, is not merely an engineering tool, but a transformative mechanism in urban governance. By avoiding forced displacement and preserving private property rights, it realizes Spatial Justice through the equitable distribution of development-generated value. For the Lower Masjediri area, this research proves that despite legal and social challenges, implementing LR is entirely feasible. This strategy takes a significant step toward achieving urban sustainability dimensions (SDG 11) by providing standard per capita spaces, enhancing safety and resilience, and improving environmental quality. Its proven success in countries such as Japan and South Korea, coupled with its adaptability to Iran's local requirements, makes it a superior and more sustainable alternative to traditional demolition and renewal methods. However, its accomplishment necessitates legal reforms, the establishment of dedicated governing bodies, and transparent mechanisms for owner and community participation. 8. Practical and Policy Recommendations Based on the findings, the following strategies are recommended for urban managers, planners, and policymakers to facilitate the LR process: 1. Founding a Dedicated, Transparent Institution: Creating an independent task force or entity at the municipal level (involving the private sector, financial institutions, and elected owner representatives) to manage the LR process transparently, preventing conflicts of interest and building public trust. 2. Regulatory and Local Bylaw Reforms: Developing clear regulations for calculating owners' contributions, compensating for potential losses, and utilizing innovative financing mechanisms such as Value Capture and issuing municipal green bonds to fund public infrastructure without burdening the municipal budget. 3. Transparent, Multi-stage Community Participation: Utilizing advanced visualization tools such as 3D GIS models and Virtual Reality to demonstrate the future benefits of the plan to owners, holding local workshops, and involving residents in decision-making from the initial stages to mitigate social resistance. 4. Phased Implementation (Pilot Projects): Due to social and legal complexities, it is recommended to pilot the plan in a smaller block or cadastral parcel with more unified ownership or higher social readiness. This will establish a successful model for the entire area and reduce project risk. 5. Integration with Other Sustainable Development Tools: Merging LR with approaches like Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) and the 15-Minute City concept to ensure pedestrian access to basic services within 400 to if 600 meters, thereby multiplying the spatial and economic efficiency of the area. 6. Continuous Monitoring and Evaluation: Developing a monitoring system based on quantitative sustainability indicators (e.g., green space per capita, street permeability coefficient, and resident satisfaction) during and after project execution to course-correct if deviations occur. 7. Leveraging Emerging Technologies: Maximizing the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Space Syntax analyses to precisely monitor physical changes and manage the project intelligently. This research can serve as a reference model and a scientific starting point for applying the Land Readjustment technique in other deteriorated fabrics of mid-sized Iranian cities, taking into account local, legal, and economic considerations. Funding There is no funding support. Authors’ Contribution Authors contributed equally to the conceptualization and writing of the article. All of the authors approved thecontent of the manuscript and agreed on all aspects of the work declaration of competing interest none. Conflict of Interest Authors declared no conflict of interest. Acknowledgments We are grateful to all the scientific consultants of this paper. https://jurbangeo.ut.ac.ir/article_108769.html ABSTRACTThe primary objective of this study is to analyze the relationships and network of urban management stakeholders in Iran. Methodologically, this research adopted a mixed-methods approach (quantitative and qualitative). Data were collected using both library research and fieldwork. The sample size consisted of 15 questionnaires, determined and completed based on the principle of theoretical saturation in qualitative research and expert judgment, utilizing the snowball sampling method. The data analysis was conducted in three stages: 1) identification of the main and key stakeholders; 2) construction of the power–interest matrix; and 3) mapping of the relationships and interactions among the actors using the MACTOR analysis method. The results indicate that Iran’s urban management structure is characterized by inequalities in power, influence, and competitiveness among stakeholders. In particular, the Islamic Consultative Assembly (Parliament) stands out as the most central actor, possessing the highest level of influence and competitiveness, and playing a decisive role in directing decision-making processes. Meanwhile, the Plan and Budget Organization and the Ministry of Interior act as powerful, bidirectional players—both influencing and being influenced—with the stability of the urban management system being highly dependent on the nature of interactions with them. The urban governance structure remains reliant on the concentration of power within governmental and sovereign institutions, while simultaneously exhibiting a high level of interest among economic and executive actors. This imbalance between formal power and social/local capacities tends to restrict the role of non-governmental stakeholders in the decision-making process.Extended AbstractIntroductionIn recent decades, the increasing complexity of urban issues in Iran—ranging from unbalanced urban expansion and environmental unsustainability to challenges of local governance and public participation—has meant that urban management can no longer be regarded as the responsibility of a single institution or organization. Contemporary urban management constitutes a multilevel network of governmental, public, private, and civil actors, each of whom participates in decision-making and implementation processes, bringing distinct interests, resources, and capacities for influence. However, the lack of institutional coordination, overlap of responsibilities, centralized decision-making, and weak linkages between national and local institutions have reduced the efficiency and legitimacy of the urban management system. In such circumstances, stakeholder network analysis can reveal patterns of relationships as well as the degree of influence and interaction among key actors, thereby providing a foundation for designing synergistic mechanisms.Moreover, one of the fundamental challenges of urban management in Iran is the absence of institutionalized mechanisms for synergy among stakeholders, such that the capacities of governmental organizations, local councils, the private sector, civil society, and citizens are not coordinated toward sustainable urban development (Mohammad-Rezazadeh, 2025; Doveyran, 2025). Information opacity, institutional distrust, and weak participatory frameworks have led to conflicts of interest and resource wastage (Goudarzi & Mirzaei, 2025; Emami & Shakeri, 2015). Therefore, it is necessary to employ a stakeholder network analysis approach to identify and analyze the structure of relationships among urban management actors in Iran and, based on this analysis, to design mechanisms for synergy, coordination, and multilevel participation. This would enable the urban management system to move away from a fragmented and sectoral approach toward integrated and network-based governance. In this regard, the main objective of this research is to analyze the relationships and stakeholder network of urban management in Iran, addressing the question: “What is the nature of relationships and the stakeholder network within Iran’s urban management system?” MethodologyFrom a methodological perspective, the study adopted a mixed-methods approach (quantitative and qualitative) based on the nature of the data. Data were collected through both library-based research and fieldwork. The sample size consisted of 15 questionnaires, which were determined and completed based on the principle of theoretical saturation and using the snowball sampling method. Data analysis was conducted in three stages: 1) identification of the main and key stakeholders; 2) formation of the power–interest matrix; and 3) mapping of the relationships and interactions among the actors using the MACTOR analysis method. Results and DiscussionThe findings derived from the stakeholder analysis and the results of the MACTOR analysis clearly indicate that the structure of urban management in Iran is deeply influenced by the “top-down” nature of the national planning and policymaking system. The concentration of power, resources, and decision-making authority within national and sovereign institutions—such as the Islamic Consultative Assembly, the Planning and Budget Organization, and the Ministry of Interior—has led to the formulation of major policies at the national level, while local levels predominantly assume the role of implementers and followers of these decisions. Although this hierarchical pattern strengthens vertical coherence and governmental control, it simultaneously circumscribes the operational latitude of local institutions and undermines the efficacy of participatory mechanisms in the urban decision-making process. The results of the Power–Interest Matrix and the competitiveness index further confirm that local actors, despite their high level of interest in urban issues, possess significantly less institutional power and influence compared to upper-level authorities.In this context, the significant power held by the Islamic Consultative Assembly (Parliament) within the network of Iran’s urban management stakeholders can be attributed to its pivotal position in the country’s legal and political structure. Unlike numerous urban management systems where a substantial portion of decision-making authority is devolved to local levels, in Iran, a major share of the legal, financial, and institutional frameworks governing city administration is determined at the national level. Consequently, as the legislative body, the Parliament plays a decisive role in shaping the rules governing urban management, defining the scope of authority for municipalities and city councils, enacting laws related to municipal revenue sources, and regulating the relationship between the central government and local governance. Beyond its legislative power, the Parliament’s role in approving budget laws and overseeing the allocation of public resources is another critical factor that enhances its influence within the urban management network. Many decisions pertaining to urban infrastructure development, project financing, and the distribution of national credits are directly or indirectly influenced by legislative and budgetary processes. Thus, the Parliament affects the behavior of other urban management actors not only by enacting laws but also by controlling the flow of resources and determining development priorities.On the other hand, urban management in Iran is characterized by a multisectoral structure, meaning that many urban issues—such as transportation, housing, spatial development, environment, and municipal finance—fall under various legal and policy domains. This topical fragmentation has enabled the legislative body to assume a prominent role in coordinating and regulating relationships among different agencies. In such circumstances, the Parliament has become a central actor in the urban management network due to its legal legitimacy, regulatory power, and access to oversight tools. However, while such a concentration of power in national institutions can potentially foster coordination and policy coherence, in the absence of effective participatory and decentralization mechanisms, it may lead to a reduction in local management autonomy and the constraint of local capacities. Therefore, the core challenge in Iran’s urban management structure is not the elimination of national institutions’ roles, but rather the establishment of a balance between their regulatory power and the enhancement of local actors’ agency and capacity.Within this structure, local policies implemented at the urban and neighborhood scales are influenced more by pre-determined national frameworks and requirements than by the active participation of citizens, local associations, and civil society organizations. This situation undermines micro-level participation, diminishes social ownership of urban plans and programs, and limits institutional learning at the local level. In other words, the gap between macro-level national policy-making and local needs and priorities results in social participation being largely formal or consultative, rather than playing a meaningful role in decision-making. The persistence of this model, without redefining power relations and strengthening bottom-up institutional mechanisms for participation, may perpetuate state-centric urban management and undermine sustainable and participatory urban governance.ConclusionWithin the framework of Iran’s political system and urban management mechanisms, this pattern can be understood as a product of a centralized governance structure, administrative hierarchy, and the precedence of legal legitimacy over social legitimacy. Despite the presence of elected institutions such as the Islamic City Councils, urban management in Iran remains largely dominated by appointed and sectoral bodies—such as the Ministry of Interior, provincial governorships, and the Ministry of Roads and Urban Development—which possess substantial legal and political authority. In such a context, the design of synergistic mechanisms requires the establishment of institutional linkages between powerful actors and those endowed with social and knowledge-based capital. This can be pursued through strengthening the position of city councils, institutionalizing neighborhood-based participation, and transforming sectoral interactions into horizontal governance networks. Without such institutional redesign, the stakeholder network of urban management will remain imbalanced, and the potential for genuine synergy among the state, the market, and local society will not be fully realized.Accordingly, the achievement of effective and sustainable urban management necessitates the redesign of institutional mechanisms to enhance vertical coordination among national, provincial, and local levels, as well as to strengthen horizontal participation among municipalities, the private sector, professional institutions, and local communities. The findings emphasize that only through a more balanced distribution of power, greater transparency of interests, and the institutionalization of participation can a synergistic network of urban stakeholders—aligned with the requirements of Iran’s political and administrative system—be formed.FundingThere is no funding support. Authors’ ContributionThe authors have each made distinct and significant contributions to this research. The first author was responsible for the research design, data collection, conducting the analyses, and drafting the initial manuscript. The second author contributed to refining the theoretical framework, analyzing the results, providing scientific revision, and performing the final editing of the manuscript. The third author assisted with data collection, conducting the analyses, and drafting the initial manuscript Conflict of InterestAuthors declared no conflict of interest. AcknowledgmentsWe are grateful to all the scientific consultants of this paper. https://jurbangeo.ut.ac.ir/article_102074.html Today, in the dictionary of security and development, a new social theory has emerged as a "fragile city". "Fragile City" is a visual, critical and historical reflection on contemporary urbanization. "Fragile city" has emerged as a new analytical framework for describing emergencies in the new era, and this new concept is a pioneering tool for understanding inequalities and conflicts in urban environments. When a city meets a community with new needs, dangers or threats and shocks in different areas of the city, it will become "fragile" and its resilience mission will be to reduce the "fragility of the city" and "return" as soon as possible and with minimal disturbance. "Maintaining competence. "The city enters the cycle of "anti-fragility" after passing the period of resilience. Anti-fragility is beyond resilience and is a more valuable, ideal and desirable vision and goal than resilience. The main purpose of the research in the first level is to theoretically conceptualize the principles and foundations of "fragile city" to produce and build and expand the conceptual framework of theory and present the theory of "fragile city" in Iranian urban planning and urban planning literature and then in the second level of research based on principles Theoretical and the framework of the generated theory, the dimensions and indicators of the "fragile city" were examined and enumerated. In this research, while using the library research method and documents from the directional content analysis method, the "theoretical conceptualization of the fragile city" was discussed. https://jurbangeo.ut.ac.ir/article_108768.html This study investigates the effect of spatial configuration on users’ visual attention using a physiological approach along the Ziyabari–Habibzadeh axis in Rasht city, across three distinct physical sequences. The study adopted a positivist paradigm and an analytical research design. Data were collected using an eye-tracking device (Tobii TX300) within a simulated street environment developed in Revit, from which extraneous elements were removed to align with the research objectives. The sample comprised 17 students and graduates from the urban design program. Quantitative analyses were performed based on two indicators: mean pupil diameter and gaze fixation. Participants’ pupil-diameter data and gaze fixation indicators were analyzed using statistical tests – including the paired Wilcoxon test, and effect-size analysis. The results indicated that in the first sequence - characterized by an appropriate spatial configuration - the highest mean pupil diameter (2.4 mm) and the highest fixation frequency (45 occurrences) and duration (426 ms) were recorded at intersections. In the second sequence, with moderate configuration, the highest pupil diameter (1.4 mm) and the longest fixation duration (498 ms) were observed in enclosed segments without intersections. However, the highest fixation frequency (42 occurrences) was recorded near the main intersection. In the third sequence, despite a weak spatial configuration, the highest pupil diameter (4 mm)and the greatest fixation frequency (49 occurrences)and duration (558 ms were observed attributed to path curvature and spatial openness.Therefore, optimal spatial configuration does not necessarily lead to greater visual attention, and perceptual qualities may play a more influential role in attracting users’ attention. https://jurbangeo.ut.ac.ir/article_109175.html The intersection of the water stress crisis and land subsidence in the Tehran metropolis is less a function of climatic variables and more the product of deficiencies in managerial structures and incoherence across decision-making layers. Accordingly, the theoretical and empirical problem of this research is the structural inefficiency and institutional deadlock within Tehran's urban management system, which has undermined its capacity to respond to the water scarcity crisis and its resulting physical hazards. Addressing the theoretical and empirical question regarding which dimension of institutional capacities in the current urban management structure is the most damaging, this study adopts an adaptive analysis model approach to assess and pathology-test the institutional capacities of urban governance across three layers: "knowledge," "relational," and "mobilization capacity." This applied research utilizes a descriptive-analytical methodology, gathering data through the analysis of macro-level documents and a specialized questionnaire administered to 40 experts selected via purposive sampling. The findings reveal that Tehran faces a paradox of "accumulation of technical knowledge and poverty of institutional capacity." While knowledge capacity stands at a relatively favorable level, "relational capacity"—hindered by institutional fragmentation between the municipality and the Ministry of Energy—constitutes the weakest link in Tehran's water governance chain. Ultimately, transitioning from the current condition necessitates a shift from structure-oriented management to forward-looking governance and the enhancement of cross-sectoral coherence in urban development documents.